Sociology: Marx, Weber & Feminist Theory

1. Classical Marxist theories have served as a springboard of inspiration for a variety of contemporary theorists challenging the existing state of society and seeking social justice and a fair society. Consequently, feminist standpoint theories, theories that represent a specific disposition, align with common themes found throughout Marxist interpretations of society, with an emphasis on the development of individual schemas dependent upon the relationship between the individual and their economic and material conditions.Although the foundation of the separation of and disparities between classes is applicable in feminist standpoint theory, feminist theories contribute an entirely unorthodox dimension to the Eurocentric, masculinist dominated sociological discourse about oppression: gender. Marx’s theories of society developed around what he considered an unfair and unjust society in which two classes existed, determined by the coincidence of birth, which Marx coined the bou rgeois, the owners of the means of production, and the proletariat, the wage earning laborers who become alienated from their work due to social constraints.Marx believed in historical materialism and class struggle, demonstrating that the private ownership of the means of production enabled the bourgeois to maintain power over the larger, powerless proletariats who provided the labor for the means of production. As a repercussion of this disparity of power Marx concluded social and moral problems were inherent to a capitalist system, which forced competition and created unnecessary antagonisms, essentially isolating the proletariat in their social position for generations.Feminist standpoint theories corroborate the essence of Marx’s disposition regarding the injustice found in society, as it is acknowledged that there is a clear disparity of power in society among stratified groups of people. Yet instead of focusing on the owner of the means of production versus the wage la borers or proletariats, feminist standpoint theories extend the argument to include the dimension of gender and emphasize the necessity of including feminist experiences.According to feminist standpoint theories, the concrete experience of females and males is historically different, as they are required by society to play very different roles. Feminist theories build on Marx’s standpoint of experience based on social class and include the systematic oppression in a society that devalues women’s knowledge and experiences. One feminist standpoint theorist in particular demonstrated the subtle differences between standpoint theories and Marx’s theories on society.Patricia Hill Collins’ matrix of domination theory agrees that there is a top-down power struggle in society that forces and controls unwilling victims, yet also notes that an individual has the ability to be the oppressor, a member of an oppressed group or both simultaneously, citing gender and cl ass as variables of oppression. Collins continues to purport that it is the oppressed or subordinate individuals and groups in society who possess the most comprehensive social knowledge of power structures and their affects on these individuals and groups due to their social positions.Marx sought change in society and attempted to inspire a revolution amongst the proletariat, with an overthrow of the capitalist system. Collins seeks to understand the struggle with a more complex perspective, contributing the observation that people simultaneously experience and resist oppression, implying that there is more control in the hands of the oppressed than what was previously thought. Just as Marx challenged the capitalist system, feminist standpoint theory further challenges the existing male-biased conventional knowledge.In both theories there exists the implication that the experiences of individuals is shaped by their social position, and a hierarchy of power relations exists among th ose who have and those who have not, or the oppressor and the oppressed. However, although Marx’s theories on society and feminist standpoint theories share the emphasis on individual experience being shaped by social position, Marx focused on class from an economic standpoint while feminist theory added to the discussion of social injustice by incorporating a new dimension, gender.While Marx was more interested in social justice for the proletariat, feminist standpoint theory extended this social justice to include the day to day concrete experiences of females with respect to their different knowledge of the world, as well as various other subordinate groups whose perspectives are often left out of the discourse on society. In conclusion, the comprehensive discussion of class relations that has been ongoing for centuries has continued to evolve over time and space, xtending the concepts of social justice and a fair society to various subordinate groups. I support Marxâ€⠄¢s theories of society serving as a significant platform for the descending schools of thought to build off of, with shared goals of social justice and a fair society. The differences can be attributed to the historical context of the development of these theories, with the discourse of sociology seen as an ongoing continuum.Sociological implications are inspirational, as it has been seen that within the discussion of social justice subordinate groups are gaining attention and credibility, and I believe it can be concluded that because of this criticism of the existent state of society, society has begun to improve. With the emersion of Marxist inspired feminist standpoint theory in the middle of the 20th century, women’s experiences have been acknowledged and improved because of their visibility in academic discourse.I support the Marxist call for an examination of subordination in the existent social structure, accompanied by feminist standpoint theories that extend to inc lude all subordinate groups that struggle with societal constraints. 2. The structure of the critiques of science and knowledge provided by Foucault parallel the central concepts and arguments found in the feminist critiques of science and positivism, yet the focus of topics are differentiated along gender lines and the quest for the origins of truth, or the acceptance that truth itself is subjective.Both Foucault and feminist critiques share a common theme of mistrust of authoritative power, and the social injustice stemming from this authoritative power. As a post-positivist philosopher with an interest in power relations and the ability of power to dominate western culture, Foucault offers criticisms of science and knowledge rooted in the distrust he maintained for the developments of science representing improved reference and authority.Foucault emphasized the quest to discover the roots of truth values in the social context of science but rejected an account of science as ideol ogical and argued that the discourse of scientific knowledge is constraining of what scientists themselves can see, but more significantly is productive and enabling for the production and solving of problems, the construction of data, and therefore the production of new knowledge to be interpreted widely s valid, or universal truth. For post-modernists, such as Foucault, science is nothing more than an allegation derived from subjective orientations, or a social construction. Feminist theorists corroborate this belief and interpret the power and injustice stemming from science with a different sociological perspective, a female standpoint.Feminist theorists believe mainstream science is a product of a patriarchy, and despite being portrayed as universal, value-free and neutral in its pursuit of truth or knowledge deemed valuable for all, it is actually organized in a way that systematically oppresses and harms women based on their gender. Feminists believe that the production of kn owledge is a social activity, embedded in a certain culture and worldview, echoing the social construction of knowledge purported by Foucault.Feminist critics of science have noted that Western science, as it has developed since the Enlightenment, is determined by political, economic and social conditions, which are based on a patriarchal order. Feminists go on to note that women themselves were left out of the development of science, and as a consequence of being perceived as closer to nature than men with respect to their capacity for feelings and emotions, were ruled out as unfit for reasoning abilities.Foucault’s main concern throughout his lifetime of publications revolved around the relationship between power and knowledge, and how one affected the other. Citing Nietzsche’s considerations of a will to power motivating human behavior with the declining of traditional values losing power over society is built upon by Foucault’s further analysis of knowledge ceasing to be liberating and instead becoming a mode of surveillance, regulation, and discipline. Foucault also argued that power itself creates new objects of knowledge and accumulates new bodies of information.The feminist critiques on positivism shares common characteristics with Foucault’s critical theories of science and knowledge, as feminists tend to adopt an anti-positivist, anti-science position due largely to the male dominated social science research. Despite positivist views put forth by such classical theorists as Emile Durkheim, supporting the necessity of objectivity in research, feminist critiques argue for subjectivity. According to feminist critique, male social science researchers likeDurkheim claimed objectivity by citing non-involvement in social problems, enabling them to distance themselves from their human subjects of research and omitting their research goals, as well as claimed scientific truth for their theories by imitating quantitative methods of the natural sciences. In an effort to parallel the natural sciences with sociology, furthering the notion that science is in fact objective, Durkheim conducted a study on suicide and measured it using the scientific method and quantifiable observations.The feminist criticism notes the results of paralleling the natural sciences with sociology were often blatantly untrue and biased against women, with science and social science being manipulated to harm women, for example by neglecting to appropriate equal value of their experiences with that of their male counterparts. Most significantly, feminist critique argues the pursuit of objectivity in science and the pursuit of truth are impossible, and by pretending that they are possible the scientific community is deceiving the public.In conclusion, feminist critiques of science and positivism are directly paralleled with the concepts found in Foucault’s critiques of science and knowledge. In both instances, I support the arguments that center on the need to understand the ambiguity and cultural context of the notion of universal truth and for scientific and social research to be sensitive to the dangers of objectivity regarding such truth. I believe the scientific approach is useful but misguided as subjectivity is inherent in the search for truth and knowledge.These critiques have significant sociological implications as the existing state of male-centered scientific research is being challenged in a way that will be productive for the various sub-groups within society, particularly along gender lines. 3. The concept of modernity generally refers to a post-feudal historical period that is characterized by the move away from feudalism and toward capitalism, accompanied by all of the ripple effects initiated by capitalism, such as the industrialization and secularization of society that is maintained and controlled through extensive surveillance. Modernity ocuses on the affects that the rise of capitalism has had on social relations, and notes Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim and Max Weber as influential theorists commenting on this phenomenon. For the purposes of this assignment, I will be focusing on the concepts and analyses of Marx and Weber. Karl Marx is perhaps the first in a series of late 19th and early 20th century theorists who initiated the call for an empirical approach to social science, theorizing about the rise of modernity accompanied by the simultaneous decline in traditional societies and advocating for a change in the means of production in order to enable social justice.Marx’s analysis of modernity reveals his conceptualization of modern society as being dictated by the rapid advancement of productive forces of modern industry, and the corresponding relationships of production between the capitalist and the wage laborers. In addition, Marx also examined the concept of class interest, which seeks to further the life of capitalism as those individuals or groups who hav e power work to retain this power at the despair of the subordinate, socially powerless individuals and groups.The rapid advancement of major innovations after the Enlightenment period known as modernity stood in stark contrast to the incremental development of even the most complex pre-modern societies, which saw productive forces developing at a much slower pace, over hundreds or thousands of years as compared to modern times, with swift growth and change. This alarming contrast fascinated Marx who traced the spawning of modern capitalism in the Communist Manifesto, citing this record speed as the heat which generated the creation of the global division of labor and a greater variety of productive forces than anytime before.Ultimately, Marx’s approach is best known as an effort to come to terms with the unprecedentedly rapid development of the new capitalist world and the consequential development and adaptation of social constraints. Marx concluded that modernity was a soc ial construction of mankind, and as a creation of mankind, mankind could reverse it and with the public class-consciousness acknowledging this rule, revolution, followed by utopia, was inevitable. In contrast, Max Weber found that social life did not evolve according to his rule, and, unlike Marx, Weber did not anticipate a definitive end of modernity but instead viewed modernity and the outlook of mankind as an open query, with an answer impossible to predict. Weber’s disposition on modernity transformed modern society into a metaphorical iron cage. The iron cage represents society’s entanglement with the modern, mechanized transformation of society initially thought to be controllable, with the ability to detangle itself from the machines at any time, like a cloak that can be removed.Throughout history, however, Marx notes that this entanglement has become permanent and the individual has been locked in a cage by a modern society, with the implementation of more soci al control manifest in excessive bureaucracy. Karl Marx and Max Weber have made significant contributions to the field of sociology, and I support both theorists in their arguments. I believe that Marx was correct in regards to his conceptualization of the social structure being of man’s creation and therefore within the realm of change under the direction of man. However I believe that limitations exist in the idealistic nature of his utopian dream.Maintaining a utopian objective as the goal of social change exposes the inherently distorted analysis of sociological phenomenon, as there is neglect of examining social issues from a micro, day-to-day orientation essentially proving the existence of a Eurocentric male bias historically found within the study of sociology. I also agree with Weber’s connection between the Protestant work ethic and the consequent rise of capitalism as is found in his work The Protestant Work Ethic, which implicates religion as the engine tha t enabled the rapid development of capitalism.However I find limitations with the primacy placed on the influence of religion as the sole engine for capitalism†¦. Marx and Weber lived and worked in a distinctive scholarly moment in time, after theological persuasive power had declined and while sociological analysis maintained a fresh outlook on classical theories. During this moment in time Marx and Weber also experienced the rapid transformation of society dictated by modern forces, which would influence their focus and work.Marx and Weber, who’s work has been critiqued and contributed to by future theorists as society continues to rapidly transform into a fully mechanized, technologically dependent society, holds sociological implications in the theorists whose work has been influenced by their analysis of modernity. 4. The Marxist perspective on work and capitalism is paralleled in many ways with Max Weber’s perspective on these issues, with subtle differences stemming from the causation of capitalism.For Marx, the theory of historical materialism held that all human institutions, including religion, were based on economic foundations, with the implication that the economic foundations came first. In contrast, Weber’s The Protestant Ethic challenges this assertion and instead implicates a religious movement as responsible for fostering capitalism, yet doesn’t fully discount the theories of Marx. According to Marx, it is historical materialism that fuels the engine of society.Historical materialism examines the causes of developments and changes in human society in regards to the collective production of life necessities, with non-economic characteristics of society, such as religious ideologies, seen as a repercussion of its economic activity. The emphasis on material objects, or commodities, during the newly mechanized time period influenced the construction of a labor class that performed activities that were detached fro m their personal identities.As private ownership over the means of production reduces the role of the worker to that of a cog in a machine, as Marx astutely determined, the worker becomes an expendable object that performs routinzed tasks. For Marx, working simply for money, in essence seen as a means to an end, and neglecting the creative potential for labor itself was analogous to selling one’s soul. Weber, on the other hand, did not fully discount Marx’s theories but added to them and incidentally sparked a conversation that has become a historically significant and enduring sociological debate.Weber proposed that ideology fostered capitalism, in part resulting from the absence of assurances from religious authorities. Weber argued that Protestants began to look for other signs that they were saved, and, spurred on by Calvinist ideas of predestination, in which individuals identified their central duty to prove their salvation accompanied by the rejection of having too much wealth, capitalism prospered. Essentially self-confidence replaced the priestly assurance of God’s kindness, and a way for this self-confidence to anifest itself and be measured was with worldly success, and profit became a visible blessing from God that enabled followers to feel confidence that they were going to heaven. This enthusiasm toward achieving self-confidence through the production of profits encapsulates the Spirit of Capitalism, and it was within this spirit that capitalism flourished. Weber described a paradox regarding this Protestant work ethic.On the one hand, Protestants desperately sought the accumulation of worldly wealth in an attempt to give them self-confidence that God has chosen them and they will be granted salvation. However, on the other hand, Protestants were also deeply passionate about frivolous purchasing of luxuries being perceived as a sin, accompanied by complex limitations for extricating the money. In order to resolve this paradox the money was invested, giving life to the class distinctions along the lines of those who possess, and those who do not.Adam Smith paved the way for this phenomenon of investment and class divergence, citing the existence of those who work hard and those who do not, and that over time those who work hard and can be motivated will accumulate wealth. I applaud Weber’s theoretical surfacing of the irony of the Protestant work ethic, which views ideology as being composed of the need to be posthumously saved through their religion, and yet this motivational work ethic would inspire the distribution of excessive earnings to maintain their religious ideals, spawning and encouraging capitalism.Marxist perspectives are limited by the need for further examination of the causes and continuations of capitalism throughout the current state of society, particularly with respect to the rapid transformation and globalization of the economy. If further analysis reveals the causation of cap italism and the structure that continues to keep it running, then it may reveal implications that mankind can control the economic and social conditions of humanity. With the appropriate critiques of capitalism in a contemporary society there may be a potential for social justice. . Social action and interaction can be explained in a number of ways, and in the field of sociology exists two major theoretical orientations that aim to discover whether the hierarchy of influence between individuals and society is macro, with society influencing the individual, or micro, with the individual influencing society. Herbert Blumer’s interpretation of symbolic interactionism demonstrates the process of interaction from a micro perspective, demonstrated in the formation of meanings for individuals.As John Dewey influenced Blumer, Blumer believed human beings are best understood in relation to their environment and used this concept as inspiration for the study of human group life and con duct. Blumer outlines his micro theory of symbolic interactionsim with three central principles. The first principle, meaning, states that humans act toward people and things, based upon the meanings they have given to those people or things, and meaning is a central influence on human behavior. The second principle regards language as a means by which to negotiate through symbols.According to Blumer, it is by engaging in acts of speech with other individuals that humans come to identify meaning, enabling the development of discourse. The third and final principle is thought, which is based on language, and is a mental representation of conversation or dialogue, requiring role taking and imagining different points of view. Essentially, Blumer supported the micro perspective of individuals influencing society because he believed the language and meaning of language explains social action. In contrast, Talcott Parsons’ macro approach to social action and interaction reveals a d ifferent conclusion.Parsons developed the theory of functionalism, which serves as a framework that views society as a complex system, whose parts work together in order to promote stability and solidarity. Parsons’ approach views society with a broad focus on the social structures that shape society as a whole, adopting a macro orientation to social action. Looking simultaneously at social structure and social functions, the theory of functionalism tackles society as a whole in terms of the functions that compose elements. These elements mostly include norms, traditions, customs and institutions.For example, it is like the human body; the individual parts work together for the functioning of the body as a whole. Functionalists such as Parsons support the notion that a social role is created due to the repetition of behaviors in interactions with the reinforcement of expectations. The role that is created is defined by Parsons as the regular, repetition of participation in co ncrete social interactions with specific role-partners. Eventually, Parsons’ concept of roles was formed into a collective definition that is functional as they assist society in servicing and satisfying its functional needs, enabling society to run smoothly.I support both Blumer’s micro level orientation as well as Parsons’ macro orientated theoretical arguments in that they acknowledge the capabilities of the individual and the adaptability of society, implicating a dialogue between the two entities. However I believe limitations exist in that both theorists place primacy of one orientation over the other, and as a result are neglecting a holistic approach. Research questions that have emerged from functionalist theories add new depth and dimension to the basic concept of functionalism.For instance, emergent theorists have inquired about functionalists’ tendency to see only the benefits of various institutional relationships brought to society, posing t he question of whether or not institutions can be oppressive and exploitative. Further emergent research questions address whether or not social institutions create social constraints, and controversially ponder why anything should change if it is already functional to society. Ultimately this discourse inspires sociological thought to continue developing and evolving over time. 6.Traditionally, theorists and theories that generally support one of two orientations have dominated the discipline of sociology. The first orientation is regarded as a macro-perspective, with an analysis of society focused on the larger overall structure of society, placing an emphasis on social systems and institutions, or structure, and the ensuing tendency for the structure to dominate the individual. The second orientation can be described as a zoomed in image of society, with a focus on the every day individual and group interactions, with the implication that the individual is being dominated by the structure of society.It is through these two distinct lenses that sociologists have contributed to the larger discourse regarding social justice and equality, yet the disconnect manifests in the perceptive cohesion of these two orientations. Contemporary sociologists, such as Anthony Giddens’ theory of structuration and the empowerment theory in feminist thought, have sparked a revolution in sociological thought with the unorthodox notion that the actor, or individual, and the agency, the structure, are in fact of equal primacy, and represent a duality rather than a hierarchy.In addition to bringing this connection to the surface of sociological discourse, many contemporary theorists’ theories are challenging the limitations of solely using one orientation in the effort to balance humanity’s understanding that individual’s posses the will to maintain social relations based on the comprehension of power, social reproduction, and institutional constraints. Giddens developed the theory of structuration, and, like many other contemporary theorists like Pierre Bourdieu, the theory supports the integration of macro and micro orientations.The structuration theory centers on the consensual duality of structure and agency, where the agent and the structure intersect, arguing that they are a dichotomy where one wouldn’t exist without the other. Giddens argues that the individual, or agency, is essentially responsible for their surroundings as they are reflexive and possess the ability to adapt to the ever-changing social structures and institutions, which also adapt to the individuals’ behavior, creating an ongoing dialogue between the two entities.The argument for a rejection of primacy between the agency and structure includes the objective of literal social change that can result from social scientific knowledge of society. Giddens continues to argue that it is the individuals’ motives that dictate the larger plan of a ction and the routinized practices determine what the action will manifest as. According to this logic Giddens proposes that individuals therefore have the ability to change their actions, which produce unintended and inevitable consequences, influencing future actions.Giddens critiques sociologists for placing too much emphasis on the constraints of social structure when he believes it is only through this activity of the individual agent that structure, or rules and resources, can exist at all. In fact, Giddens purports that a social structure or system is composed of a set of produced and reproduced relations between agents. It is this belief in the duality of agency and structure, as well as the desire to alter the discourse to ncorporate an integrated orientation rather than independent orientations, that Giddens has significantly contributed to the discussion and debate of macro and micro orientations, citing the inability for one to exist without the other. Despite criticism of structuration as inadequate, Giddens’ work continues to influence and inspire contemporary social thought.Feminist thought and the empowerment theory takes an additional step back from sociological discourse to evaluate the misconception of objectivity found in Eurocentric, male dominated standpoints and argue for the need to take a subjective perspective in order to achieve any social change. Additionally, feminist thought advocates for the integration of orientations to examine the individual’s experience as equivalent, or dualistic, with the social structure in which the individual plays an active role in shaping.It is also deemed necessary that the interrelationships between the individual, groups and society are examined from a subjective, integrated orientation in order to make the leap from social theory to social practice. According to feminist thought, by making the previously personal world of the individual political the barrier between the individual and society is broken down and lays the foundation for individuals to influence and experience social change.The empowerment theory suggests that production and maintenance of society is dependent upon the individuals who are socially considered undesirable, casting these occupations as invisible in society and, accompanied by a societal ideology that lacks public appreciation for these occupations, the undesirable individuals also believe their work is invisible, revealing the distortion of societal components. It is within feminist thought that the empowerment theory extends not only to women, but any subordinate, oppressed group or individual within the larger society.This emerging connection between the personal and political identity parallels Giddens’ support of integrating the macro and micro orientations in order to achieve any significant social change, and I support both approaches. I believe that with the integration of the orientations true social change can be achie ved, and that further examination of the intersection between agency and structure can enhance the limitations of past sociological thought. By creating and maintaining a boundary between these two worlds and rejecting the notion of a duality, a cognitive dissonance will continue to remain in the lives of oppressed and arginalized individuals without any hope for societal change. Contemporary sociologists must continue to transcend this boundary, accepting the inherent subjectivity found in any social science and focusing on fostering a productive sociological discourse with the goal of social justice. As Marx a stoutly stated in the mid-19th century, philosophers have only interpreted the world; the point, however, is to change it. 7. As the grand theory is considered the most abstract level of sociological theory, the initial intentions of such a theory are discussed in an abstract, idealistic way.Grand Theory, a term created by American sociologist C. Wright Mills, refers to the preference for formal organization and the arrangement of concepts over understanding the social world. The concept of an overarching, grand sociological theory can be applicable in an idealistic setting, where each diverse aspect of society is equitably dealt with and examined to formulate widely accepted conclusions about the world. However, the emphasis tends to focus on concepts that are generally disconnected from the concrete, every day realities of societal life.I believe that an adapted version of a grand theory in sociology is necessary to the extent that it has the ability to provide a structured framework in an otherwise incredibly complex social world. However, I also believe the grand theory should not be accepted as universal but instead should be considered a continuous work in progress that is added to over time as traditionally invisible issues continue to surface, creating multiple new dimensions of potential thought. Throughout sociological history the theoretical supporters and critics of a grand theory have been numerous.Karl Marx’s Historical Materialism, Anthony Giddens’ The Juggernaut of Modernity, and Talcott Parsons’ Actions Theory each offer various uses and perspectives of grand theory concepts. The evolution of the concept of a grand theory can be seen throughout these noteworthy theorists’ work. For example, Marx’s work with the grand theory of historical materialism put forth a streamlined argument that stated economic relations were the foundation of social structure, regardless of any other variable.Embedded in this theory is the idea of an overarching, universal definition of social structure contingent solely upon economic and material relations. This revolutionary idea may have been appropriate in the historical context of the theory, yet weaknesses in the universal concept of a grand theory appear in the absence of any other variable which undoubtedly impacted the social structure of Marxà ¢â‚¬â„¢s time.Anthony Giddens uses the concept of a grand theory to examine modernity, differentiating from the streamlined definition of society as purported by Marx by including a complex assortment of variables, which contribute to modernity. Giddens relates modernity to an overpowering force that transcends everything in its path with the implication that it is uncontrollable. Giddens also suggests that the overpowering force of modernity is dynamic, with the consequences of actions unforeseeable and uncontrollable, yet it manages to adjust based on reflexive actions, creating new societal problems in the process.Overall, Giddens’ interpretation of grand theory offers a more complex framework for analyzing society in modernity, yet it is left open ended as Giddens anticipates the creation of a new slew of issues that will plague society based on the adjustments made from previous issues. Talcott Parsons is credited with the continuing the quest toward the theoretical evol utionary development of structural functionalism and established what can be defined as a grand theory of action systems, despite the fact that Parsons himself declined to identify it as a grand theory.Parsons contributes to the discussion of grand theories in that he expanded the theory to consist of influence from various disciplines aside from sociology, including psychological, economical, political and religious components. Parsons also connected the concepts of motives as part of our actions, and determined that social science must take ends, purposes and ideals into consideration when creating a grand theory. Parsons attempted to integrate all of the social sciences within an overarching, grand theoretical framework that aimed to include aspects of both macro and micro orientations.Tracing the evolution of the concept of a grand theory reveals the irony rooted in the quest for such a grand theory, which is that despite attempts to create universal truths regarding society ind ependent of time and space, such independence is not possible. Marx, Giddens and Parsons each lived in their own, slightly different time periods and as a result one can observe the variations in their concepts of grand theories.I believe that the evolution of a grand theory is a continuous one with no particular end, because as Giddens suggested, the flexibility of society to adapt to societal issues in turn creates new societal issues, suggesting the permanence of such an analytical cycle. 8. Among Emile Durkheim’s plethora of contributions to sociological theory emerges an unorthodox, evolutionary approach, which considered society to be like an organism, distinguishing two central characteristics as structure and function. Durkheim’s contributions also include helping establish and define the field of sociology as an academic order.Durkheim expanded the limitations of the study of sociology when he argued that sociologists should study particular features of collec tive, or group, life. He suggested that society exists independently of the individuals in it, as societies influence individuals through established norms, sentiments, and social facts. Durkheim contributed the inquiry of study regarding modern society and its ability to remain cohesive despite the individualism and self-sufficiency of each person, as well as the study of social facts representing features of the group that cannot be examined independently of either the collective or the individual.Emile Durkheim’s writings are recognized for forming the foundation of functionalist thought, which remains among the oldest and most dominant theoretical perspectives in the study of sociology. The foundations of functionalism center on two categories: the individual organism and society being seen as analogous, and the examination of the objective social world with the application of the scientific method.Durkheim was one of the first sociologists to make use of scientific and s tatistical data to conduct sociological research, such as with his famous work Suicide, using real data to examine the phenomenon of suicide among religious groups. By incorporating the scientific method as a central method of research, Durkheim implicitly contributed the assertion that the social world can be studied in the same ways as the physical world. Regarding Durkheim’s relation to structuralism, he was concerned with the question of how particular societies are able to maintain stability internally and are capable of survival over time.Durkheim discussed structuralism in two variations, with the first referring to the pre-industrial societies that were structured on equivalent parts connected by shared values, and the second referring to more complex post-industrial societies that are connected through specialization and strong interdependence. The essence of Durkheim’s relation to structuralism and functionalism is the concept of the whole being greater than the sum of its parts, with society being greater than the individuals.Talcott Parsons offers a contemporary perspective on the concepts of structuralism and builds on Durkheim’s interpretation by discussing structuralism as a framework to examine society as a complex system whose parts work together in order to promote solidarity and stability. The focus on Parsons’ work is on the social structures that shape society as a whole, determining that each individual has a set of expectations based on other’s actions and reactions to that individual’s own behavior.Parsons also contributes the idea of the role, established through the repetition of behaviors and interactions dictated by social structure and that become recognized as normal. This concept of roles evolved into the groups of roles that harmonize each other and ultimately fulfill functions for society, in the sense that they assist society in operating and running smoothly. In conclusion, the concep ts put forth by the theories of functionalism and structuralism has had a significant impact on the study of sociology.Durkheim utilized the scientific method, and for this leap to a parallel with the natural sciences and hence more validity I am in support. However, Durkheim’s scientific method was perceived from an inherently Eurocentric male standpoint, and consequently produced misleading results. Emile Durkheim is ascribed with forming the foundation of thought in the functionalist orientation, and continued to attempt revolutions in sociological thought throughout his life’s work. Talcott Parsons is one of many contemporary theorists who have built upon Durkheim’s original theory y contributing contemporary rationalizations and have enhanced the sociological discussion regarding the macro evaluation of a modern functioning society. I support Parsons’ concept of social roles that are dictated on social expectations and are controlled by social struct ure, yet I find limitations in the neglect of an analysis of the social roles for subordinate individuals and groups, and without this analysis social justice will remain an idealistic theory. 9. The theoretical contributions and approaches of sociological theorists such as W.E. B. Du Bois and Patricia Hill Collins are significant in the conversation of sociological history as they take the unorthodox approach of delving into the perception of historically invisible issues regarding race and gender. For instance, Du Bois approaches the subject of race that centers on describing and explaining the actual, instead of theoretical, daily life conditions of African Americans, such as the threat of racially motivated violence like lynching, and the psychological damage of being separate but equal under Jim Crow laws.This brought a clearness of vision of specific phenomenon to the sociological conversation, with a focus on race, and an extension to any colored group that has experienced Eu rocentric imperialism. In regards to racism, Du Bois granted the primary responsibility of the social construction of racism on capitalism, and Du Bois was sympathetic to socialist causes throughout his work. Du Bois utilized deductive analysis, accompanied by empirical observation, to examine the experience of African Americans throughout the 19th and 20th centuries.Du Bois was primarily focused on variables that had been ignored by his sociological predecessors with particular attention paid to the intersection of race and class. He was interested in how the intersection of these variables contributes to broader cultural patterns dictating the stratification of individuals along lines of race and class and the shaping of individuals’ perceptions and experiences. Du Bois offers his conceptualization of race in comparing the variety of races around the world, with the U. S. housing two of the most extreme examples of race on the planet.As a result, the concept of the double c onsciousness exists, as African Americans may ask themselves on daily occasions what identity is truly theirs. For instance, one might ask, am I American or am I black? Can I be both? Does being black give me more of an obligation to assert my nationality than European immigrants would? Further, the double consciousness is the sense of â€Å"otherness† that prevents this uniform sense of self in accordance with the American image and produces a sense of two-ness, both American and black.In addition, Du Bois’ concept of the veil represents the distance that is felt socially between people of separate races, most significantly keeping the less dominant group, blacks, out of the dominant group’s, white, world. Patricia Hill Collins continues to build on the concepts highlighted by Du Bois’ work, and instead of extending his conversation about race and class Collins adopts an unconventional method of examining the intersection of race and gender.Collins empha sizes the specific experiences of black women as intersecting categories of oppression, with the goal of extending the discourse into other oppressed individuals and social groups. Collins’ theorizes that black women stand at the focal point where two historically powerful systems of oppression meet: gender and race, focusing on black women as outsiders within the larger, white male dominated society. According to Collins, by acknowledging this intersection of oppression, the possibility to see into other social injustices.Collins identifies three aspects of every day life in which black women are affected by and manage their race and definitions of identity in the greater American culture. These three aspects are known as safe spaces where black women are able to articulate their thoughts and feelings without the social pressure of mainstream society, which creates the double consciousness experienced by racial divide. The creation of the safe space is essential for the surv ival of oppressed groups, as they provide a unique place away from the ruling ideologies.For instance, one safe space for black women is in their relationships with each other. By empowering themselves in their own relationships, black women are able to help each other learn the knowledge to survive. Other safe spaces include black women’s blues traditions, followed by black female literature and poetry. Through these art forms, black women are able to approach the concepts of social injustice in a non-threatening manner.Collins also adds that groups must identify themselves, instead of letting other identify them. In conclusion, W. E. B. Du Bois and Patricia Hill Collins have made significant contributions to the sociological discussion of social injustice by forcing the issues of racial, class, and gender inequalities to the surface of social discourse. I find the work of Collins to be an extension of what Du Bois began, and I support the shared goal for both theorists in t heir quest for social justice for all subordinate groups.In fact, I believe that the combination of work from Du Bois and Collins epitomizes the essence of micro sociology, as they are able to articulate the invisible yet powerful social constraints that subordinate individuals and groups experience, and represents a transcendence of sociological thought above Eurocentric male standpoints. Their work has left deep impressions on current and future sociological theorists and essentially opened the door for the study of other socially oppressed groups.

Macbeth: The Role of Gender and Position Essay

In Macbeth, many elements that affect the story’s plot and outcome; however, gender and position of power play the most important role of the story. For example, Lady Macbeth continuously wants to be changed into a man in order to get certain duties done that Macbeth is hesitant to do. Also, Lady Macbeth uses the power of belittling Macbeth’s masculinity to further drive his actions in the play. Lastly, the witches’ predictions of Macbeth’s future affect and change him through the position of power he will soon possess. Overall, many aspects of the play foreshadow and affect the ending of the play; however, sex (gender) and power have the biggest impact. Throughout the course of the play, Lady Macbeth constantly exerts the fact that she does not want to be a female. Lady Macbeth wants to be changed into a man because she would hold more power, and be able to escape the stereotypes associated with being a female. Such stereotypes include, not being capable to do certain activities men can, being fragile, and having a frail attitude about oneself. One example of Lady Macbeth wanting to become a male is when she states â€Å"Come, you spirits that tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here . . .† (Shakespeare 33) Lady Macbeth’s statement implies the obvious, which is, due to her being a female she is unable to murder Duncan (aside from his resemblance to her father) and wants to be â€Å"unsexed†. Another example of Lady Macbeth despising being a female is when she states â€Å"That no compunctious visitings of nature shake my fell purpose, nor keep peace between th’ effect and it,† (Shakespeare 33). Lady Macbeth’s statement basically states that she wants to be ridden of the â€Å"visitings of nature† because they distract her from her purpose and goal. Lady Macbeth’s gender affects her role in her husband’s life, and she despises the fact. Lady Macbeth continuously despises being a female. In Macbeth, Lady Macbeth constantly manipulates her husband Macbeth by testing his masculinity. In order to manipulate Macbeth and get him to do certain actions, Lady Macbeth simply makes comments testing his masculinity such as â€Å"When you durst do it, then you were a man . . .† (Shakespeare 43). In the passage, Lady Macbeth convinces Macbeth to kill Duncan because the murder will prove himself being a man. Lady Macbeth constantly uses Macbeth being a male against him. Mark Lugris states â€Å"Influenced by his wife, Lady Macbeth, the general kills the reigning King and steals the throne,† (Lugris). Lugris’ statement best explains the reason Macbeth murders Duncan. Without his wife’s influence, Macbeth probably wouldn’t have killed Duncan. Mahatma Gandhi states â€Å"Man’s nature is not essentially evil. Brute nature has been known to yield to the influence of love. You must never despair of human nature,† (Gandhi). Gandhi’s statement applies to Macbeth’s situation because, like the quote states, Macbeth is not essentially evil; however, his love for his wife influences his decisions; furthermore, the only reason Lady Macbeth has influence on Macbeth is because of her constant testing of his manhood. Lady Macbeth is able to have influence on Macbeth and his decisions because she uses his manhood against him. Throughout the play Macbeth, Macbeth’s attitudes and goals change all because of his strive for power. At the beginning of the play, Macbeth is loyal, and trustworthy. Towards the end of the play, however, Macbeth is power-hungry, delusional, and disloyal. Macbeth states â€Å"I know I am thane of Glamis, but how of Cawdor?† (Shakespeare 19). At the moment when Macbeth makes his comment doesn’t believe the witches’ predictions because he is loyal to Duncan and would never kill him; however, Macbeth ends up committing the murder of Duncan because of his crave for power. Macbeth eventually lets his new position of power get to his head and orders for Banquo, who was once his best friend, to be killed. After Banquo is murdered, Macbeth tells the murderers â€Å"Thanks for that. There the serpent lies,† (Shakespeare 101). Macbeth’s statement shows the fact that he only cares about himself. Abraham Lincoln states â€Å"Nearly all men can stand adversity, but if you want to test a man’s character, give him power,† (Lincoln). Lincoln’s statement applies to Macbeth because Macbeth is only corrupt when given power. Also, Jimmy Hendrix states â€Å"When the power of love overcomes the love of power, the world will know peace,† (Hendrix). Jimmy’s statement demonstrates Macbeth because if Macbeth would have chosen his love for his friends and family, he wouldn’t have become corrupted by his power. Lastly, the young siward states â€Å"The devil himself could not pronounce a title more hateful to mine ear,† (Shakespeare 183). The Young Siward’s comment is a realization in the play because towards the end of Macbeth, Macbeth has built a bad reputation for himself. He was noble and just in the beginning, but now, people are fearful and hateful towards him. Macbeth has now become a tyrant due to his position of power. Overall, power greatly influences the play Macbeth. Throughout the play Macbeth, the fact is vividly clear that many themes and ideas play a role in the outcome; furthermore, the most influential factors of the play are gender, and position of power. The factors, gender and power, evolve into conflicts amongst the characters. Such conflicts include, Macbeth killing Banquo, and Lady Macbeth influencing Macbeth. Gender and power are the key elements of the play.

Inclusive education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Inclusive education - Essay Example The issue of the ethnic group also has got a great relevance as a serious topic for research. Therefore, the research relating to Inclusive Education will cover the general area of disabled students with the various issues related to their inclusion in the social programs like special education. Within this general framework, there is ample opportunity to relate include the issues of the children from ethnic community which maximises the scope of the research undertaken. However, the possible failure of this broad area will need to be particularly maintained in equilibrium to keep the research socially relevant and universally significant. In the identification of the area of research, the most relevant consideration has been the issues of the inclusive education for children with disabilities and this research area has a universal appeal. When the issues as reflected in the cases of disabled children from the ethnic groups in inclusive education, for specific treatment, the research paper ultimately attains social relevance. The research in the field of Inclusive Education needs to gain universal recognition as the most pertinent issues such as the issues of the children with disabilities. It is noteworthy that these issues are many often vaguely addressed in analyses and studies. As the statement of the World Bank on disability and education points out, these are matters which determine the universal nature of education. The issues of the ethnic boys’ inclusion in universal education process has a scope just as the issues of the disabled children have.

Week 7 Case Analysis Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Week 7 Analysis - Case Study Example The company instituted a policy that allowed its customers to check-in two bags free of charge. Most airlines in the industry charge their customers $15 to $25 per bag. The strategy has been very effective because during recessionary times customers are looking for ways to save. Transportation – Southwest Airlines operates in an industry in which overhead costs are very high. The company might be foregoing a lot of income by not charging its customers money for transporting their bags. Integrated Marketing – The company is using an integrated marketing campaign in which the firm is attempting to steal market share from other companies by promoting its free bag policy. The organization might have made a mistake within its strategy by becoming the first airline in the industry to charge for carry-on bags to highlight the benefits of free bag handling. Promotional Mix – The firm’s promotional mix has been effective, but the company might not be focusing on other revenues opportunities such as increasing the amount of business flyers that utilize the firm’s services. Target market – The marketing strategy of the company is targeting flyers that are looking for a bargain price. The firm’s strategy is not focusing enough on obtaining recurrent flyers. Based on Pareto’s 80-20 rule 80% of a firm’s business comes from 20% of its customers (Starak). Public relations – The public relations campaigns of the company focus a lot on how fun it is to fly with the company. The firm might be better off by illustrating to its customers how much more value the firm offers through its combination of lower prices and free bag handling. Value based purchasing brings together information about the quality of the product or service (Ahrq). The case study is a good illustration of how companies can take advantage of recessionary times to increase their market share. Often people believe that during a recession all businesses have

Management, People and Organisations - Managing the United Kingdom Essay - 1

Management, People and Organisations - Managing the United Kingdom National Health Service - Essay Example Finally, the paper discusses the functions of management and the skills required to perform the managerial role and focuses on the "control" function to determine whether or not it can be performed without managers. Management is defined by Koontz and Weihrich (2004) as the process of designing and maintaining an environment in which, individuals, working in groups, efficiently accomplish selected goals. There are different definitions regarding what management precisely is. In another definition â€Å"Management is the art of getting things done through people† (Daft, 2005). According to these definitions, the key role of management is to get things done by the people, through creating a suitable environment in which they can achieve organisational goals. The case study shows that many clinicians have taken on managerial roles into their existing role, in a bid to make a difference. This involvement in management can be time consuming and actually conflicts with their clinical roles. It is obvious that many of the symptoms which the case study demonstrates can be directly linked to conflict of roles. A role is â€Å"a set of expectations and obligations to act in a specific way in a certain context† (Rollinson, 2008). In any given role, there are two aspects: The role player and his obligation toward the role, and the role setter who has expectations from the person performing the role. â€Å"Role conflict arises from inadequate role definition. The manner in which a person actually behaves may not be consistent with their expected pattern of behaviour. Such inconsistency leads to a number of results which reflect negatively on the manager’s performance and morale†. (Leicester MPO, 2007) The first result is incompatibility of role. It arises when compliance with being a clinician makes it very difficult to comply with being a manager. Middle managers often face this problem with their senior and junior managers. (Leicester MPO, 2007) As

Analyzing an image and text - assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Analyzing an image and text - - Assignment Example The painting was able to capture the different emotions of the narrow street through the expressions of the people in the scene. The colors of the picture and the strokes that had been used by the painter also contributed to the message of vibrant activities of the people in the narrow street. But the said painting was given a deeper meaning by the poem. Every part of the picture was given meaning, the child and the ball, the baker, the couple, the child and the mother, and the other elements of the picture. Though the written words, the meaning of the picture was elevated to the point that the audience can perceive that the narrow street is bursting with emotions of excitement, love, etc., which is more than a painting can ever express. The two works elevated the normal activities of the people in the narrow street and gave it more life, color and importance. Although the painting was able to capture the emotions that gave the audience a better and more exciting perspective, the written words was able to create a higher level of understanding. On a personal note, the written words can give a higher perspective because it can lead to the limitless imagination of the audience or the reader. Although the painting can elicit an emotion, the picture that it creates is more exact and leaves less space for the mind to explore. It can make the mind think of meanings behind the painting but the imagery it can stimulate is limited to the scenarios in the

Homeland Defense, History of Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Homeland Defense, History of - Case Study Example homeland. The refusal of the U.S. to negotiate with rebels or terrorists and its eagerness to punish advocates of terrorism has formed the situation as well (Jordan, 2002). Current terrorist organizations are becoming ever more engaged in taking lives than acquiring political agreements, and the fear of retaliations has resulted in a bigger need for underground operations and possible deniability among terrorist organizations and their patrons (Gingrich, 2009). The rise of global and nonstate organizations hence has led to opponents who are harder to monitor and prevent than countries are and who are more engaged in initiating destructive occurrences (Larson & Peters, 2001). Technology also serves a vital function. There are growing concerns about the production of weapons of mass destruction (WMD). These involve fears about unstable ex-Soviet nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) weapons or, by means of attempts by purported ‘rogue states’ and highly subsidized organi zations like Osama Bin Laden and Aum Shinrikyo’s group, the growing capability to produce or obtain such weapons (Gingrich, 2009). Likewise, the escalating shipment and range of ballistic missile systems has brought about fears about opponents’ possible capability to attack the U.S. (Jordan, 2002). Lastly, technological developments in information and communication technologies (ICT) have curtailed the value of geography and facilitated assaults on information and communication structures and other computer-reliant structures from all over the world (Nicholson & Biden, 2005). These continuing developments also have been disrupted by several attacks abroad and at home that has emphasized the defenselessness of developed states against terrorism, like the United States (Nicholson & Biden, 2005), and has led to many injuries and fatalities. As cited in Cordesman (2002), as explained in the Report of the President’s Commission on Critical Infrastructure Protection ( 1997), the Report of the National Defense Panel (1997), the Federal Emergency Management Agency’s evaluation of federal outcome management capacities in 1997, and the account of the DoD Tiger Team on incorporation of National Guard and Reserve endorsement of the responses to attacks of WMD, these trends have encouraged policy-level interest to the issue and the recognition of several weaknesses in the nation’s ability to reduce or prevent the approaching threats (Cordesman, 2002). The approaching threats and weaknesses in response also have resulted in the distribution of important resources to the management and deterrence of the outcomes of terrorist assaults against the U.S. and to critical discussion about the bounds of a homeland security, or currently referred to as ‘homeland defense’, undertaking for the U.S. armed forces and the Department of Defense (DoD) (Larson & Peters, 2001). The undertaking would back up the national attempt to mitigate the t hreats and outcomes of potential attacks on the United States. This essay will attempt to give a general idea of the major policy concerns linked to homeland defense. This will be a critical essay presenting a case study

Complaints Against an Attorney Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Complaints Against an Attorney - Essay Example The subchapter 8.100 of the Michigan Court rules clearly states some rules that regulate the conduct of attorneys. In addition, the Michigan Supreme Court occasionally produces administrative orders, which can have the same effect of the Michigan Court Rules governing attorney practices. (Michigan legal ethics). Michigan attorneys are accountable for their misconducts regardless of whether or not they are occurred in the course of an attorney-client relationship. According to the section 0.2:240 of the Michigan Rules of Professional Conduct, misconduct can be referred to as â€Å"conduct prejudicial to the proper administration of justice† or â€Å"conduct that exposes the legal profession or the courts to obloquy contempt, censure or reproach† (Michigan legal ethics). An individual can file a complaint against the attorney if the individual truly believes that the attorney’s conduct was against justice, professional ethics, honesty and good morals. If the attorney’s conduct does not meet the Standards of Professional Responsibility set by the Supreme Court, he will be found guilty. An individual can file a Request for Investigation if the attorney’s conduct is contrary to US’ or any of its states’ criminal law. An attorney will be found accountable for his misconduct if he intentionally misrepresents any fact or circumstance. In short, an individual can file a Request for Investigation against an attorney if the complainant really believes that the conduct of the attorney was against his professional ethics. Anyone can file a complaint against an attorney licensed by the State Bar of Michigan or permitted by an authoritative court by filling and signing the Request for Investigation form of AGC. In addition, the complaint can also be filed by sending in a signed letter. According to the Attorney Grievance Commission, â€Å"The form or letter must be signed and sufficiently describe the alleged

Consumption and convergence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Consumption and convergence - Essay Example Consequently the concept now commands preponderance over format. The ensuing fusion of till now estranged media has finally made way for the virtual world that is far more interesting and tangible as compared to the utterly scattered version of reality offered by the analogous media. Murdock celebrates the advent of digitization by declaring that, â€Å"This age of analogue communications is now coming to an end. It is giving way to a new media landscape based on digital technologies (2008: 35).† Convergence is a natural and direct outcome of the homogenization of format made possible by digitization. Merriam-Webster dictionary defines ‘convergence’ as, â€Å"the merging of distinct technologies, industries or devices into a unified whole (2009).† Hitherto the concept of convergence had certain negative connotations associated with it because of the fear of a possible concentration of power and the annihilation of diversity. Yet, the fact is that convergence is a direct response to the needs and preferences of the contemporary consumer who thrives in a scenario where the line between work and entertainment is very think and the enhanced access facilitated by the compatibility of variegated portals is in high demand. It will get really feasible to grasp this idea by pragmatically comparing two recent instances of media convergence i.e. PS3 and Nintendo WII videogame consoles. On November 11, 2006, Sony Entertainment officially released its much anticipated Play Station 3 (PS3) video console in Japan. This was followed by a US release on November 17, 2006 and then in Europe on March 23, 2007. The PS3 was not being marketed as just a video game console but as a home multimedia system. This is because the PS3 is packed with various technologies that can readily be consumed through other platforms. The PS3 console is manufactured with an inbuilt BLUE RAY disc

An Assessment of the Need for Worker Representation in the 21st Essay

An Assessment of the Need for Worker Representation in the 21st Century - Essay Example ship: Aggregate union density: No union members: Union density of 50% or more: Recognised unions: (% employees) (% workplaces) (% workplaces) (% workplaces) All workplaces 34 64 48 30 Sector of ownership: Private 22 77 8 16 Public 64 7 62 90 Management attitudes towards union membership: In favour 60 8 58 84 Neutral 22 76 9 17 Not in favour 5 93 1 4 Table 2: Union Presence, by Sector of Ownership and Management Attitudes (Source: Marchington and Wilkinson 2008 p.390) The importance of management attitudes is discussed later in this paper. Employee Relations The latest ideas to involve workers more in the workplace are employee engagement and employee involvement and participation (EIP). These follow changes from collective and multi-employer bargaining brought about by international competition and globalisation. Increasingly, although employees have various rights enshrined in law, employers are dictating terms and, in some cases, unilaterally attempting to change contracts of emplo yment to the detriment of employees (Curtis 2010b). Heery (2009 p.334) discusses the representation gap, restating key themes of â€Å"union revitalisation, non-union representation and the effectiveness of public policy† as needing further research. Szell (2010 p.184) describes â€Å"the neo-liberal economic system† as having â€Å"declared war on the trade unions and workers’ participation† when considering the impact of the global financial crisis on the trade union movement and labour policies, specifically in the EU. This is even more important with the austerity drive being pursued by the current UK coalition government as, following the announcements of substantial budget cuts for the public sector, unions have advised that they intend striking to protect both their members’ jobs... An Assessment of the Need for Worker Representation in the 21st Century Hutton believes that the employment relations culture in 2010 resembles that of the 1970s and this causes many employees to take employers to employment tribunals to obtain justice. He highlights that â€Å"around a third of all people at work have experienced some form of unfair treatment in the past year†, the gender pay gap and low pay as evidence that there is a need for â€Å"a more effective collective worker voice in the workplace†. Employment relations are as difficult an area as ever, with workers still requiring protection within the working context, whether through legislation or union representation. Employers seem determined to exclude workers from decision making and regard them as simply resources, like fixtures and fittings, with no opinions, attitudes or voices of their own once they enter the workplace. Representation is still required, and will continue to be so until employers realise that employees’ full participation in organisational decision making improves the bottom line. One area that organisations might like to explore in this respect, is stakeholder theory. Although most organisations pay lip service to stakeholders other than shareholders, adopting such an approach would generate many positive benefits, including within the employee relations arena. The key issue to be addressed is the power differential between employer and employed. Until this is resolved, employees will still be treated poorly and still require representation, both as individuals and collectively.

Oil and Non-Oil Economy of the UAE Essay Example for Free

Oil and Non-Oil Economy of the UAE Essay The general dichotomization of the economy of the United Arab Emirates is into the oil and non-oil sectors. While the aggregate output remains dependent on oil production, the United Arab Emirates is focusing on the development of its non-oil sector as part of its diversification plan. However, its ability to develop fully its non-oil sector depends on the performance of its oil sector. One consideration is the relative contribution of the oil and non-oil sectors to the economy. The other consideration is the ability to the oil-sector to support the diversification plan in the non-oil sector. Abed and Hellyer (2001) explained that in 1998 the production of crude oil accounted for less than a quarter or 22 percent of gross domestic product. However, even if the contribution of crude oil production to aggregate output is less than a quarter, the impact of the sector on the economy is much bigger. Oil exports contributed 37 percent of earnings in foreign exchange and 60 percent of public sector revenue. The oil sector contributes to the aggregate economy in four fronts, which are business investment, household income and consumption, public spending, and net exports. This substantiates the claim that the oil sector comprises the backbone of the UAE economy. Further growth occurred in the oil sector in 2006 with the Ministry of Information and Culture (2006) reporting that the oil and gas sector contributed 28 percent to aggregate output. Concurrently, there is also growth in the non-oil sector, particularly in manufacturing and financial sectors. The UAE Federal Government (2008) further reported that oil and gas production experienced further growth by contributing one third to gross domestic product. This is primarily due to programs intending to optimize oil and gas production in the different emirates. At the same time, there is also solid growth in the non-oil sector. In the next years, the contribution of the oil sector should stabilize at one third of the economy and the non-oil sector becoming a stronger contributor to economic growth. This would allow the UAE to maximize returns from the oil and gas sector to boost growth in the non-oil sector. UAE Economic Developments to Achieve Diversification The United Arab Emirates is already on its way towards economic diversification. Although, the oil and gas sector remains as an important sector, the UAE has achieved developments in the non-oil sector. There are areas of economic developments that the UAE has to focus on to achieve diversification. Dunning (2005) identified the optimization of resource base as a means of achieving diversification. The UAE has to hone the potential of its key resources to establish different industries. The country has already done this by continuously developing its oil and gas sector. However, it also needs to optimize the resource base for the non-oil sector such as the development of land through urban planning or the urbanization of peripheral lands to provide venues for manufacturing and services sectors or the maintenance of natural resources for tourism. Another economic development needed to support diversification encompasses structural changes. According to Shihab (2006), the economic structure needs to support the needs of the non-oil sector. One way of achieving this is influencing employment patterns to develop labor force for the non-oil sector. This means investing in human services such as education and health to ensure labor productivity. Muysken and Nour (2006) stressed on the deficiencies in the educational system and low level of skills of the labor force as areas for improvement if the UAE wants to succeed in diversifying its economy. Another way is the establishment of different industries to broaden the economic base and create employment. A third economic development is integration of infrastructure and social structures to support diversification. DeNicola (2005) explained that infrastructure developments are necessary to attract investments and create employment opportunities for non-oil industries. Shihab (2006) explained that social factors such as the development of a culture of consumerism and calm co-existence among local minorities and expatriates support growth in the non-oil sector. Justification for Diversifying the UAE Economy Imbs and Wacziarg (2003) explained that the overall justification for economic diversification is sustainable growth by spreading economic risk across different industries. Economies reliant on a single sector such as the reliance of the member countries of the Gulf Cooperating Council on the oil sector also face high risks in the long-term because oil is a non-renewable resource (Fasano Iqbal 2003). There are also specific reasons for the goal of the UAE for diversifying its economy. One is avoidance of the effect of the oil curse theory, which explains that dependence on oil has long-term negative effects on the economy. Oil exporting countries gain revenue by relying on price fluctuations in the global market alone, which does not require investments or efficiency that in turn precludes long-term development of economic capabilities or competencies. Revenue generated from oil is sufficient to support welfare services, placing focus on allocation instead of production. (HSBC Middle East 2003; DeNicola 2005) Another justification is the maximization of revenue generation through resource development. Diversification would enable an oil dependent economy such as the UAE to gain revenue from its other resources. Sole reliance on oil limits the revenue generating potential of the economy and hampers economic efficiency by idling resources. (Shihab 2006) Another related reason is resolving revenue volatility. Dependence on oil involves the downside of volatility in the long-term because oil is non-renewable, which means oil reserves will eventually run out in the future. Oil dependent countries need to develop other sources of revenue to ensure continuity of revenue generation even after oil reserves have dwindled. (Gylfason 2004) Still another justification is human development by creating employment opportunities for the young population. The UAE has a predominantly young population, which means a pool of intellectual and skill resource able to support the development of non-oil industries. Diversification enables the economy to develop its human resources to increase quality of life and sustain productivity. (HSBC Middle East, 2003; Muysken Nour 2006) Non-Oil Sector in Economic Diversification for Sustainable Economic Development The Ministry of Information and Culture (2006) explained that the non-oil sector contributed 72 percent of the GDP of the UAE. This reflects the potential of developing the non-oil sector to achieve economic diversification and ensure sustainable economic development. The non-oil sector comprises goods manufacturing and services, with the former contributing 57. 9 percent and the latter contributing 42. 1 percent to GDP from the non-oil sector. Industries under goods manufacturing are agriculture, livestock and fisheries, mining, manufacturing, construction, and electricity, gas and water. Industries under services include restaurants and hotels, transportation, storage and communication, real estate and business, and social and private services. Diversification is already apparent in these various industries and there is still wide room for the development of these industries and the establishment of new industries. Hejmadi (2004) explained that development of the economic free zones were crucial to the development of different industries in goods manufacturing and services. These zones provided a venue and incentives for the flow of both domestic and foreign investments into diverse industries to create employment opportunities and contribute to the growth in aggregate output. Apart from the continuous development of these industries, a potential industry for diversification in the non-oil sector is tourism. Sharpley (2002) explained that tourism is becoming a ubiquitous means of achieving economic diversification for many countries seeking to secure long-term economic growth. Tourism fits the resource approach to sustainable growth since the UAE has many tourism destinations to attract tourists and its cultural openness also comprise an impetus for foreign tourists. Blanke and Mia (2006) reported that travel and tourism already exist as an industry in the UAE and contributing 1. 1 percent to GDP. There is wide potential for development. However, there are challenges to tourism development requiring investments in destination development and promotions (Sharpley, 2002; Henderson 2006) References Abed, I. Hellyer, P. (Eds. ), 2001. United Arab Emirates: a new perspective. London: Trident Press Ltd. Blanke, J. Mia, I. , 2006. Chapter 22 assessing travel tourism competitiveness in the Arab world. [Online] Available at: http://www. weforum. org/pdf/Global_Competitiveness_Reports/Reports/chapters/2_2. pdf [Accessed 25 January 2009] DeNicola, C. , 2005. Dubai’s political and economic development: an oasis in the desert?. Williamstown, MA: Williams College. Dunning, T. , 2005. Resource dependence, economic performance, and political stability. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 49(4), pp. 451-482. Fasano, U. Iqbal, Z. , 2003. GCC countries from oil dependence to diversification. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.

Mehta Automobiles Essay Example for Free

Mehta Automobiles Essay In 1980, Mr. Sanat Mehta joined Standard Automobiles of Ahmedabad as a mechanic. In appreciation of his excellent work, he was soon promoted to the post of chief mechanic. Mr. Mehta’s professional ability, his pleasing manners and sense of responsibility endeared him to the customers of Standard Automobiles to such an extent that some of them persuaded him to commence his own automobile repair workshop. One of them persuaded him to commence his own automobile repair workshop. One customer, Mr. Nitin Shah offered to rent a part of his godown situated in a busy street of Ahmedabad city. Another customer, Mr. Mohan Kapoor, the local manager of a large bank mentioned that a loan of up to Rs. 100,000 could be made available to him under the scheme for financing small business. After some discussion with members of his family, Mr. Mehta decided to commence an automobile service and repairs workshop under the name of Mehta Automobiles. For this purpose, he invested Rs. 50,000 from his past savings and accepted Mr. Shah’s and Mr. Kapoor’s offers. A part of the amount was deposited in the bank in the name of Mehta Automobiles. The enterprise had a good start, thanks to the patronage of some old customers of Standard Automobiles. Mr. Mehta publicized his operations by displaying cinema slides in selected local cinemas and soon his workshop became well known in that area. In the beginning, Mr. Mehta did all the work of the mechanic, helped by two assistants recruited at the time of the commencement of the business. Soon he added a spare parts selling section to his business as this was quite a profitable associated activity. In this, he was helped by his son Mr. Rajendra Mehta who also assisted him in collection of cash from debtors. During his service at Standard Automobiles, Mr. Mehta had come to know very well some wholesalers of service materials, such as tools, stores and spare parts. This helped him in buying such material on credit. However, most of the other purchases particularly spare parts and practically all his sales were on cash basis. Because of the relatively small extent of credit transactions, Mr. Mehta had not thought of maintaining formal accounting records, as he had felt that increases in cash balance would adequately indicate the profit earned by him. All cash received was deposited in the bank account, and expenses and payments were recorded in a notebook. Mr. Mehta occasionally experienced some difficulty in recording transactions which did not result in direct sales. For instance, when his personal car was overhauled, involving considerable use of his mechanics’ time as well as spare parts costing about Rs. 15000 he was not sure how it should be recorded. He finally decided that since the garage was owned by him no adjustments need be made for this transaction. Rapid expansion of his business compelled Mr. Mehta to hire four new assistants and two mechanics. He also recruited a part-time salesman for spare parts selling. Mr. Mehta continued to attend personally to purchases, collections and other administrative aspects of business. A small section of the workshop premises was set apart for office purposes. The office was simply furnished with a table, three chairs, a filing cabinet and also a telephone. Spare parts, stores, tools etc. , and other supplies which were formerly stored in a small room at his residence, were now stored in steel racks in a section of the workshop. Mr. Mehta soon came across and advertisement that appeared in the local newspaper. A well-known automobile company of Bombay was looking for a good automobiles service shop owner, who would be willing take up the sole selling agency of their cars and spare parts in Gujarat. Mr. Mehta applied for this agency as he was advised by his friends in business circles that such an agency would be a profitable proposition. However, he was puzzled by two conditions which were imposed in awarding this agency. According to the first condition, the agent had to obtain a certificate from his bank to the effect that a minimum balance of Rs. 500,000 was maintained in the business account. Secondly, the agent was required to send to the principal, periodic statements showing the current financial position of the business and the business results in the immediate past period. Mr. Mehta was duly assigned the sole selling agency for the Gujarat on the basis of excellent reports received by the principal from local businessmen. For fulfilling the first condition, Mr. Mehta saw Mr. Kapoor, the Bank agent. After discussions with Mr. Mehta, the Bank agent agreed to grant Mr. Mehta a further loan of Rs. 500,000. He asked Mr. Mehta, to submit a statement showing the current position of his business so that he could process the loan application. Mr. Mehta mentioned that so far he had not maintained any regular accounts. The maintenance of such records required specialized knowledge which he did not possess and he felt hiring an accountant would increase his costs which he could not afford in his competitive business situation. Mr. Kapoor said that systematic accounting records would be a necessity, if Mr. Mehta wanted to expand his business and fulfill the operational requirements like bank borrowing, credit purchases as well as legal requirements to payment of tax. The same evening Mr. Mehta saw Mr. Ashok Lal, a friend who was the Chief Accountant of a local textile mill. He expressed to Mr. Lal his desire to start keeping systematic accounting records and requested him to prepare for him a statement showing the assets and liabilities of his business. He also supplied to Mr. Lal the necessary information to enable him to prepare the required statement. Mr. Lal also explained to Mr. Mehta how a â€Å"Profit and Loss Analysis† could be prepared so that Mr. Mehta could be more accurately measure the results of his business performance. He prepared a list of various statements that Mr. Mehta should arrange to obtain periodically from his subordinates for maintaining his accounting records. Questions for consideration 1. Mr. Mehta mentioned that. i) he could not have systematic accounting records because he did not possess specialized accounting skill; and ii) keeping such records would mean increase in costs, which he could not afford. How would you respond to these comments? 2. What information would Mr. Lal require for preparing the financial statement? 3. What items would you expect to find in the statements of financial position and profit and loss analysis relating to Mr. Mehta’s business? 4. What records would Mr. Mehta require to maintain for controlling his business activities?

Load Flow Analysis For Electricity Supply Engineering Essay

Load Flow Analysis For Electricity Supply Engineering Essay Power flow studies, commonly referred to as load flow, are essential of power system analysis and design. Load flow studies are necessary for planning, economic operation, scheduling and exchange of power between utilities. Load flow study is also required for many other analyses such as transient stability, dynamic stability, contingency and state estimation. Network equations can be formulated in a variety of forms. However, node voltage method is commonly used for power system analysis. The network equations which are in the nodal admittance form results in complex linear simultaneous algebraic equations in terms of node currents. The load flow results give the bus voltage magnitude and phase angles and hence the power flow through the transmission lines, line losses and power injection at all the buses. 1.1 BUS Classification Four quantities are associated with each bus. These are voltage magnitude, phase angle ÃŽÂ ´, real power P and reactive power Q. In a load flow study, two out of four quantities are specified and the remaining two quantities are to be obtained through the solutions of equations. The system buses are generally classified into three categories. Slack bus: Also known as swing bus and taken as reference where the magnitude and phase angle of the voltage are specified. This bus provides the additional real and reactive power to supply the transmission losses, since there are unknown until the final solution is obtained. Load buses: Also know as PQ bus. At these buses the real and reactive powers are specified. The magnitude and phase angle of the bus voltage are unknown until the final solution is obtained. Voltage controlled buses: Also known as generator buses or regulated buses or P- buses. At these buses, the real power and voltage magnitude are specified. The phase angles of the voltages and the reactive power are unknown until the final solution is obtained. The limits on the value of reactive power are also specified. The following table summarizes the above discussion: 1.2 BUS Admittance Matrix In order to obtain the bus-voltage equations, consider the sample 4-bus power system as shown in Fig. 1.1 1.1 The impedance diagram of sample 4-bus power system For simplicity resistances of the lines are neglected and the impedances shown in Fig.1.1 are expressed in per-unit on a common MVA base. Now impedances are converted to admittance, i.e, = 1.1 Fig.1.2 shows the admittance diagram and transformation to current sources and injects currents at buses 1 and 2 respectively. Node 0 (normally ground) is taken as reference. 1.2 the admittance diagram of 1.1 Applying KCL to the independent nodes 1,2,3,4 we have Rearranging the above equations, we get Let, The node equations reduce to Note that ,in Fig.1.2, there is no connection between bus 1 and bus 4, so Above equations can be written in matrix form, 1.2 or in general 1.3 Where vevtor of the injected currents (the current is positive when flowing into the bus and negative when flowing out of the bus) admittance matrix. Diagonal element of Y matrix is known as self-admittance or driving point admittance, i.e. 1.4 Off-diagonal element of y matrix is known as transfer admittance or mutual admittance, i.e. 1.5 can be obtained from equation (1.3), i.e. 1.6 From Fig.1.2, elements of Y matrix can be written as: So 1.3 BUS Loading Equations Consider i-th bus of a power system as shown in Fig.7.4. transmission lines are represented by their equivalent à Ã¢â€š ¬ models. is the total charging admittance at bus i. Fig 1.4: i-th bus of a power system Net injected current into the bus I can be written as : 1.7 Let us define 1.8 Or 1.9 The real and reactive power injected at bus is is 1.10 From equations 7.9 and 7.10 we get 1.11 1.12 1.4 BUS Impedance Matrix The bus impedance matrix for en t 1T nodes can be written as Unlike the bus admittance matrix, the bus impedance matrix cannot be formed by simple examination of the network circuit. The bus impedance matrix can be formed by the following methods: à ¢- Inversion of the admittance matrix à ¢- By open circuit testing à ¢- By step-by-step formation à ¢- From graph theory Direct inversion of the Y matrix is rarely implemented in computer applications. Certain assumptions in forming the bus impedance matrix are: 1. The passive network can be shown within a closed perimeter, (Fig.1.3). It includes the impedances of all the circuit components, transmission lines, loads, transformers, cables, and generators. The nodes of interest are brought out of the bounded network, and it is excited by a unit generated voltage Fig.1.3 Representation of a network as passive elements with loads and faults excluded. The nodes of interest are pulled out of the network and unit voltage is applied at the common node. 2. The network is passive in the sense that no circulating currents flow in the network. Also, the load currents are negligible with respect to the fault currents. For any currents to flow an external path (a fault or load) must exist. 3. All terminals marked 0 are at the same potential. All generators have the same voltage magnitude and phase angle and are replaced by one equivalent generator connected between 0 and a node. For fault current calculations a unit voltage is assumed 1.5 POWER IN AC CIRCUITS The concepts of instantaneous power, average power, apparent power, and reactive power are fundamental and are briefly discussed here. Consider lumped impedance Z, excited by a sinusoidal voltage E (1.13) (1.14) The first term is the average time-dependent power, when the voltage and current waveforms consist only of fundamental components. The second term is the magnitude of power swing. Equation (1.2) can be written as (1.15) The first term is the power actually exhausted in the circuit and the second term is power exchanged between the source and circuit, but not exhausted in the circuit. The active power is measured in watts and is defined as (1.16) The reactive power is measured in var and is defined as: (1.17) These relationships are shown in Fig. 1.4; cosÃŽÂ ¸ is called the power factor (PF) of the circuit, and ÃŽÂ ¸ is the power factor angle. The apparent power in VA is given by (1.18) The power factor angle is generally defined as (1.19) If cosÃŽÂ ¸=1, Q=0. Such a load is a unity power factor load. Except for a small percentage of loads, i.e., resistance heating and incandescent lighting, the industrial, commercial, or residential loads operate at lagging power factor. As the electrical equipment is rated on a kVA basis, a lower power factor derates the equipment and limits its capacity to supply active power loads. The reactive power flow and control is one important aspect of power flow. The importance of power factor (reactive power) control can be broadly stated as: à ¢- Improvement in the active power handling capability of transmission lines. à ¢- Improvement in voltage stability limits. à ¢- Increasing capability of existing systems: the improvement in power factor for release of a certain per unit kVA capacity can be calculated from Eq. (10.6): where PFimp is improved power factor, PFext is existing power factor, and kVAava is kVA made available as per unit of existing kVA. à ¢- Reduction in losses: the active power losses are reduced as these are proportional to the square of the current. With PF improvement, the current per unit for the same active power delivery is reduced. The loss reduction is given by the expression: Where Lossred is reduction in losses in per unit with improvement in power factor from PFext to PFimp. An improvement of power factor from 0.7 to 0.9 reduces the losses by 39.5% à ¢- . Improvement of transmission line regulation: the power factor improvement improves the line regulation by reducing the voltage drops on load flow. All these concepts may not be immediately clear and are further developed. Fig 1.4 1.5.1 Complex Power If the voltage vector is expressed as A t jB and the current vector as C t jD, then by convention the volt-ampe`res in ac circuits are vectorially expressed as E= (A +jB) (C- jD) = AC +BD +j(BC-AD) = P+ jQ (1.20) where P = AC t BD is the active power and Q BC _ AD is the reactive power; I_ is the conjugate of I. This convention makes the imaginary part representing reactive power negative for the leading current and positive for the lagging current. This is the convention used by power system engineers. If a conjugate of voltage, instead of current, is used, the reactive power of the leading current becomes positive. The power factor is given by cosÃŽÂ ¸= (1.21) 1.5.2 Conservation of Energy The conservation of energy concept (Tellegens theorem) is based on Kirchoff laws and states that the power generated by the network is equal to the power consumed by the network (inclusive of load demand and losses). If i1; i2; i3; . . . ; in are the currents and v1; v2; v3; . . . ; vn the voltages of n single-port elements connected in any manner: (1.22) This is an obvious conclusion. Also, in a linear system of passive elements, the complex power, active power, and reactive power should summate to zero: (1.23) (1.24) (1.25) 1.6 POWER FLOW IN A NODAL BRANCH The modeling of transmission lines is unique in the sense that capacitance plays a significant role and cannot be ignored, except for short lines of length less than approximately 50 miles (80 km). Let us consider power flow over a short transmission line. As there are no shunt elements, the line can be modeled by its series resistance and reactance, load, and terminal conditions. Such a system may be called a nodal branch in load flow or a two-port network. The sum of the sending end and receiving end active and reactive powers in a nodal branch is not zero, due to losses in the series admittance Ysr (Fig. 1.5). Let us define Ysr, the admittance of the series elements= j or Z= zl= l(+j)= + =1/Ysr, where l is the length of the line. The sending end power is = Where is conjugate.This gives where sending end voltage is Vs and, at the receiving end: If is neglected: where ÃŽÂ ´ in the difference between the sending end and receiving end voltage vector angles= (. For small values of delta, the reactive power equation can be written as Fig1.5 Power flow over a two-port line. where is the voltage drop. For a short line it is Therefore, the transfer of real power depends on the angle ÃŽÂ ´, called the transmission angle, and the relative magnitudes of the sending and receiving end voltages. As these voltages will be maintained close to the rated voltages, it is mainly a function of ÃŽÂ ´. The maximum power transfer occurs at ÃŽÂ ´=90(steady-state stability limit). The reactive power flows is in the direction of lower voltage and it is independent of ÃŽÂ ´. The following conclusions can be drawn: 1. For small resistance of the line, the real power flow is proportional to sin ÃŽÂ ´. It is a maximum at ÃŽÂ ´=90ËÅ ¡. For stability considerations the value is restricted to below ÃŽÂ ´=90ËÅ ¡. The real power transfer rises with the rise in the transmission voltage. 2. The reactive power flow is proportional to the voltage drop in the line, and is independent of ÃŽÂ ´. The receiving end voltage falls with increase in reactive power demand. 2.1 Practical Load Flow The requirements for load flow calculations vary over a wide area, from small industrial systems to large automated systems for planning, security, reactive power compensation, control, and on-line management. The essential requirements are: à ¢- High speed, especially important for large systems à ¢- Convergence characteristics, which are of major consideration for large systems, and the capability to handle ill-conditioned systems. à ¢- Ease of modifications and simplicity. i.e. adding, deleting, and changing system components, generator outputs, loads, and bus types. à ¢- Storage requirement, which becomes of consideration for large systems The size of the program in terms of number of buses and lines is important. Practically, all programs will have data reading and editing libraries, capabilities of manipulating system variables, adding or deleting system components, generation, capacitors, or slack buses. Programs have integrated databases, i.e., the impedance data for short-circuit or load flow calculations need not be entered twice, and graphic user interfaces. Which type of algorithm will give the speediest results and converge easily is difficult to predict precisely. Table.2.1 shows a comparison of earlier Z and Y matrix methods. Most programs will incorporate more than one solution method. While the Gauss-Seidel method with acceleration is still an option for smaller systems, for large systems some form of the NR decoupled method and fast load-flow algorithm are commonly used, especially for optimal power flow studies. Speed can be accelerated by optimal ordering .In fast decoupled load flow the convergence is geometric, and less than five iterations are required for practical accuraci es. If differentials are calculated efficiently the speed of the fast decoupled method can be even five times that of the NR method. Fast decoupled load flow is employed in optimization studies and in contingency evaluation for system security. The preparations of data, load types, extent of system to be modeled and specific problems to be studied are identified as a first step. The data entry can be divided into four main categories: bus data, branch data, transformers and phase shifters, and generation and load data. Shunt admittances, i.e., switched capacitors and reactors in required steps, are represented as fixed admittances. Apart from voltages on the buses, the study will give branch power flows; identify transformer taps, phase-shifter angles, loading of generators and capacitors, power flow from swing buses, load demand, power factors, system losses, and overloaded system components. No. Compared parameter Y matrix Z matrix Remarks 1 Digital computer memory requirements Small Large Sparse matrix techniques easily applied to Y matrix 2 Preliminary calculations Small Large Software programs can basically operate from the same data input 3 Convergence characteristics Slow, may not converge at all Strong Both methods may slow down on large systems 4 System modifications Easy Slightly difficult See text 2.2 Y-Matrix Method The Y-matrix iterative methods were the very first to be applied to load flow calculations on the early generation of digital computers. This required minimum storage, however, may not converge on some load flow problems. This deficiency in Y-matrix methods led to Z-matrix methods, which had a better convergence, but required more storage and slowed down on large systems. Some buses may be designated as PQ buses while the others are designated as PV buses. At a PV bus the generator active power output is known and the voltage regulator controls the voltage to a specified value by varying the reactive power output from the generator. There is an upper and lower bound on the generator reactive power output depending on its rating, and for the specified bus voltage, these bounds should not be violated. If the calculated reactive power exceeds generator Qmax, then Qmax is set equal to Q. If the calculated reactive power is lower than the generator Qmin, then Q is set equal to Qmin. At a PQ bus, neither the current, nor the voltage is known, except that the load demand is known. A mixed bus may have generation and also directly connected loads. The characteristics of these three types of buses are shown in Table 2-1. Bus type Known variable Unknown variable PQ Active and reactive power Current and voltage PV Active power and voltage Current and reactive power Swing Voltage Current, active and reactive power 2.2.1 GAUSS AND GAUSS-SEIDEL Y-MATRIX METHODS The principal of Jacobi iteration is shown in Fig. 2.1. The program starts by setting initial values of voltages, generally equal to the voltage at the swing bus. In a well-designed power system, voltages are close to rated values and in the absence of a better estimate all the voltages can be set equal to 1 per unit. From node power constraint, the currents are known and substituting back into the Y-matrix equations, a better estimate of voltages is obtained. These new values of voltages are used to find new values of currents. The iteration is continued until the required tolerance on power flows is obtained. This is diagrammatically illustrated in Fig. 2.1. Starting from an initial estimate of, the final value of x* is obtained through a number of iterations. The basic flow chart of the iteration process is shown in Fig. 2.2 Fig2.1 Illustration of numerical iterative process for final value of a function Fig. 2.2 Flow chart of basic iterative process of Jacobi-type iterations 2.2.2 Gauss Iterative Technique Consider that n linear equations in n unknowns () are given. The a coefficients and b dependent variables are known: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. These equations can be written as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. (2.1) An initial value for each of the independent variables is assumed. Let these values be denoted by The initial values are estimated as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. These are substituted into Eq. (2.1), giving à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. These new values of are substituted into the next iteration. In general, at the k-th iteration: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. 2.2.3 Gauss-Seidel Y-Matrix Method In load flow calculations the system equations can be written in terms of current, voltage, or power at the k-th node. We know that the matrix equation in terms of unknown voltages, using the bus admittance matrix for n+ 1 node, is Although the currents entering the nodes from generators and loads are not known, these can be written in terms of P, Q, and V: The convention of the current and power flow is important. Currents entering the nodes are considered positive, and thus the power into the node is also positive. A load draws power out of the node and thus the active power and inductive vars are entered as:-p j (-Q) =-p + j Q. The current is then (-P + j Q)/. The nodal equal of current at the k-th node becomes: In general, for the k-th node: (2.2) The k-th bus voltage at r + 1 iteration can be written as (2.3) The voltage at the k-th node has been written in terms of itself and the other voltages. The first equation involving the swing bus is omitted, as the voltage at the swing bus is already specified in magnitude and phase angle. The Gauss-Seidel procedure can be summarized for PQ buses in the following steps: 1: Initial phasor values of load voltages are assumed, the swing bus voltage is known, and the controlled bus voltage at generator buses can be specified. Though an initial estimate of the phasor angles of the voltages will accelerate the final solution, it is not necessary and the iterations can be started with zero degree phase angles or the same phase angle as the swing bus. A flat voltage start assumes 1 + j0 voltages at all buses, except the voltage at the swing bus, which is fixed. 2: Based on the initial voltages, the voltage at a bus in the first iteration is calculated using Eq. (2.2) 3: The estimate of the voltage at bus 2 is refined by repeatedly finding new values of by substituting the value of into the right-hand side of the equation. 4: The voltages at bus 3 are calculated using the latest value of found in step 3 and similarly for other buses in the system. This completes one iteration. The iteration process is repeated for the entire network till the specified convergence is obtained. A generator bus is treated differently; the voltage to be controlled at the bus is specified and the generator voltage regulator varies the reactive power output of the generator within its reactive power capability limits to regulate the bus voltage: where stands for the imaginary part of the equation. The revised value of is found by substituting the most updated value of voltages: For a PV bus the upper and lower limits of var generation to hold the bus voltage constant are also given. The calculated reactive power is checked for the specified limits: If the calculated reactive power falls within the specified limits, the new value of voltage is calculated using the specified voltage magnitude and. This new value of voltage is made equal to the specified voltage to calculate the new phase angle. If the calculated reactive power is outside the specified limits, then, This means that the specified limits are not exceeded and beyond the reactive power bounds, the PV bus is treated like a PQ bus. A flow chart is shown in Fig. 2.3 2.3 Newton-Rapson Method Newton-Raphson method is an iterative method which approximates the set of non-linear simultaneous equations to a set of linear equations using Taylors series expansion and the terms are restricted to first order approximation. 2.3.1 Simultaneous Equations The Taylor series is applied to n nonlinear equations in n unknowns, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. As a first approximation, the unknowns represented by the initial values can be substituted into the above equations, where are the first estimates of n unknowns. On transposing Where is abbreviated as The original nonlinear equations have been reduced to linear equations in The subsequent approximations are à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Or in matrix form: The matrix of partial derivatives is called a Jacobian matrix. This result is written as This means that determination of unknowns requires inversion of the Jacobian 2.3.2 Rectangular Form of Newton-Rapson Method of Load Flow The power flow equation at a PQ node is Voltage can be written as: Thus, the power is ] ] Equating the real and imaginary parts, the active and reactive power at a PQ node is: where and are functions of and . Starting from the initial values, new values are found which differ from the initial values by and (First iteration) (First iteration) For a PV node (generator bus) voltage and power are specified. The reactive power equation is replaced by a voltage equation: 2.3.3 Polar Form of Jacobian Matrix The voltage equation can be written in polar form: Thus the power is Equating real and imaginary terms: The Jacobian in polar form for the same four-bus system is The slack bus has no equation, because the active and reactive power at this bus is unspecified and the voltage is specified. At PV bus 4, the reactive power is unspecified and there is no corresponding equation for this bus in terms of the variable. The partial derivatives can be calculated as follows: 2.3.4 Calculation Procedure of Newton-Raphson Method The procedure is summarized in the following steps, and flow charts are shown in Figs 2.4 and 2.5 à ¢- Bus admittance matrix is formed. à ¢- Initial values of voltages and phase angles are assumed for the load (PQ) buses. Phase angles are assumed for PV buses. Normally, the bus voltages are set equal to the slack bus voltage, and phase angles are assumed equal to 0ËÅ ¡, i.e., a flat start. à ¢- Active and reactive powers, P and Q, are calculated for each load bus à ¢- P and Q can, therefore, be calculated on the basis of the given power at the buses à ¢- For PV buses, the exact reactive power are not specified, but its limits are known. If the calculated value of the reactive power is within limits, only P is calculated. If the calculated value of reactive power is beyond the specified limits, then an appropriate limit is imposed and Q is also calculated by subtracting the calculated value of the reactive power from the maximum specified limit. The bus under consideration is now treated as a PQ (load) bus. à ¢- The elements of the Jacobian matrix are calculated à ¢- This gives and à ¢- Using the new values ofand, the new values of voltages and phase angles are calculated. à ¢- The next iteration is started with these new values of voltage magnitudes and phase angles. à ¢- The procedure is continued until the required tolerance is achieved. This is generally 0.1kW and 0.1 kvar. Fig 2.4 Flow chart for NR method of load flow for PQ buses. Fig.2.5Flow chart for NR method of load flow for PV buses 2.3.5 Impact Loads and Motor Starting Load flow presents a frozen picture of the distribution system at a given instant, depending on the load demand. While no idea of the transients in the system for a sudden change in load application or rejection or loss of a generator or tie-line can be obtained, a steady-state picture is presented for the specified loading conditions. Each of these transient events can be simulated as the initial starting condition, and the load flow study rerun as for the steady-state case. Suppose a generator is suddenly tripped. Assuming that the system is stable after this occurrence, we can calculate the redistribution of loads and bus voltages by running the load flow calculations afresh, with generator 4 omitted. Similarly, the effect of an outage of a tie-line, transformer, or other system component can be studied. Table 2-2 Representation of Load Models in Load Flow 3. Conclusion Load flow is a solution of the steady-state operating conditions of a power system. It presents a frozen picture of a scenario with a given set of conditions and constraints. This can be a limitation, as the power systems operations are dynamic. In an industrial distribution system the load demand for a specific process can be predicted fairly accurately and a few load flow calculations will adequately describe the system. For bulk power supply, the load demand from hour to hour is uncertain, and winter and summer load flow situations, though typical, are not adequate. A moving picture scenario could be created from static snapshots, but it is rarely adequate in large systems having thousands of controls and constraints. Thus, the spectrum of load flow (power flow) embraces a large area of calculations, from calculating the voltage profiles and power flows in small systems to problems of on-line energy management and optimization strategies in interconnected large power systems. By the load flow studies which performed using digital computer simulations. I have a main idea of how a power networks power flow calculation operation, planning, running, and development of control strategies. Applied to large systems for optimization, security, and stability, the algorithms become complex and involved. While the study I have done above just a small part of the research and I think the treatment of load flow, and finally optimal power flow, will unfold in my following study.